Grammar of phrases

A phrase is a unit that functions as a particular part of speech, such as a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or preposition. A phrase can be a single word or it can contain other phrases.

Noun phrases

Usually headed by nouns or pronouns, other words are called dependents because you can delete them without damaging the sentence syntax. They commonly act as the following:

Function	Example
subject	Steaks are the best food.
object of transitive verbs	We will eat steaks.
object of prepositions	The buffet was different kinds of steaks.
indirect object	I gave John a free taco.
subject predicative	Jack is the man.
object predicative	Everyone considers Bill Gates a genius.
premodifier of other nouns	the shoe store
vocative (direct address/what you call someone)	I hope you are doing well, Josie.
appositive (restate with extra info)	Vince, a salesman, always has an angle.

Appositives

An appositive restates the noun and adds additional information. You can distinguish between the subject and appositive by looking at how commas set them apart:

My favorite [song], Layla, is a classic. ([subject], appositive)
My favorite song, [Layla] is a classic.
Old black cats are especially scary. (noun head)
We went to the store. (pronoun head)
Talking is her favorite activity. (gerund head)
The poor are never in luck. (nominal adj head)

Premodifiers and postmodifiers

Premodifiers come before the noun that they modify:

red shirt
Italian wine

Postmodifiers come after the noun, and are usually participial modifying phrases and prepositional phrases:

wine from Italy
shirts colored red

There can be a combination of the two:

Red wine from Italy is my favorite.

Restrictive modifiers

Restrictive modifers limit the scope of things referred to by the noun:

Shoppers who steal items are arrested.
Credit card information hacked off the internet is valuable.

Restrictive modifiers can omit that, the zero relative:

Bread that you bake is delicious.
Bread you bake is delicious.

Nonrestrictive modifiers

Nonrestrictive modifers do not limit the scope of things referred to by the noun. They are often separated from the noun phrase with commas, dashes, or parentheses:

Shoppers (who steal items) are not welcome in the store.
The song, which is a classic, has a great intro.

Verb phrases

There are finite and nonfinite verb phrases:

finite

Conjugated to work with a subject: Dan drives.

nonfinite

Not inflected to work with the subject and form a clause. Often become participles, gerunds, and infinitives:

Worrying, I spent the night sitting on my bed.
To train, I lift weights three times a week.

Composition

Can be used with auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries, or modifiers:

Rick stopped drinking.
Rick has stopped drinking.
Rick might stop drinking.

Adverb phrases can be in the middle:

Rick has [recently] stopped drinking.
Rick has [only recently] stopped drinking.

Negation

We usually make the sentence negative with the verb phrase using a form of be and do:

I am not here.
She does not want to leave.
You do not own a shovel.

Adjective phrases

Perform the following jobs:

premodify a noun
serve as a subject predicative (reflects back on the sentence subject):
- Kyle is happy.

Coordinate and noncoordinate

Coordinate adjective phrases make sense with and, and each adjective modifies the noun equally:

The food tasted dry, flavorless, and salty.

Noncoordinate phrases have adjectives that might be more important to the noun:

The cheap blue suit.

Adverb phrases

Modify the entire sentence or answer the questions:

In what manner?
When?
Where?
To what degree?

They can be a single word or multiple words:

He goes outside very often.
Sara went to the dentist early yesterday morning.

Types of adverbs

Adjunct

Integral to the sentence:

I only went because you told me to.

Conjunct

Ties the sentence with a previous thought:

Additionally, I made sure the dogs were fed.

Disjunct

Provides commentary on the entire sentence:

Honestly, this is the craziest rumor I’ve ever heard.

Adverbials

Many adverb phrases that function as an adverbial (or adverbial phrase) have a preposition as their head word:

Kevin drinks like a fish.

Prepositional phrases

Take complements–items that complete them. These complements are usually one of the following:

Phrase type	Example
noun phrases	I have to speak [with] my mother.
-ing participle clauses	I am so tired [of] arguing with my brother.
wh- clauses (who, what, where, …)	Its a matter [of] which route you take.
how clauses	…
adverbs	[From] where did you get the book?
adjectives	I finished the book [in] solitude.

They have several different functions:

Function	Example
Modify noun	A person in trouble should receive help.
Modify adjective	I’m miserable in this heat.
Subject predicative ( complement of copular verb)	The plane is on standby.
Object predicative	I stopped him from leaving the party.
Adverbial (modifies verb)	I [sang] the song with gusto.

Stranded preposition

When a preposition is not immediately followed by its complement because the complement came earlier or because it was omitted. This is when sentences are contorted to not end with a preposition:

What are you waiting for? -> For what are you waiting?

This happens for a few reasons:

The sentence is passive: I can’t talk to him. -> He is someone I cannot talk to.
The complement of the preposition is already made clear, often with “what” or “when” questions: What are you waiting for?